Task C. Emergency Procedures
Task C. Emergency Procedures | |
References | AC 107-2; FAA-H-8083-25; FAA-G-8082-22; SAFOs 09013, 10017, 15010 |
Objective | To determine that the applicant is knowledgeable in sUAS emergency procedures. |
Knowledge | The applicant demonstrates understanding of: |
UA.V.C.K1 | Emergency planning and communication. |
UA.V.C.K2 | Characteristics and potential hazards of lithium batteries. |
UA.V.C.K2a | a. Safe transportation such as proper inspection and handling |
UA.V.C.K2b | b. Safe charging |
UA.V.C.K2c | c. Safe usage |
UA.V.C.K2d | d. Risks of fires involving lithium batteries |
UA.V.C.K3 | Loss of aircraft control link and fly-aways. |
UA.V.C.K4 | Loss of Global Positioning System (GPS) signal during flight and potential consequences. |
UA.V.C.K5 | Frequency spectrums and associated limitations. |
UA.V.C.K6 | Procedures for operations over people. |
UA.V.C.K7 | Procedures for operations at night. |
Risk Management | [Reserved] |
Skills | [Not Applicable] |
UA.V.C.K1 Emergency planning and communication (AC-1072A 8.12.2.5)
Although the FAA does not require the remote pilot operating instructions to contain information in addition to the above enumerated items, the FAA encourages small unmanned aircraft manufacturers to provide additional operational information to remote pilots. This information will assist remote pilots in planning operations, decision making throughout the flight, and the overall safe conduct of operations of their small unmanned aircraft by providing valuable operating information about the specific small unmanned aircraft design and capabilities. Manufacturers may wish to develop voluntary standards regarding the information provided in the remote pilot operating instructions. These would provide consistency across small unmanned aircraft remote pilot operating instructions, and the remote pilots would have a clearer understanding of what information would accompany a small unmanned aircraft. Information that a small unmanned aircraft manufacturer may wish to consider providing includes, but is not limited to, the factors in paragraphs 8.12.2.5.1 through 8.12.2.5.3 below.
8.12.2.5.1 Performance, Limitations, and Operating Characteristics:
• Operating temperature limits (high and low limits);
• Weather limitations to include wind, precipitation, and maximum wind gusts;
• Altitude limitations to include maximum operating altitude;
• Range limitations;
• Power source to include endurance, power setting, and consumption levels appropriate to the type of propulsion system (fuel, battery, etc.);
• Airspeed limitations;
• Maximum weights;
• Prohibited maneuvers; and
• Other limitations necessary for safe operations over people.
8.12.2.5.2 Normal, Abnormal, and Emergency Operating Procedures:
• Preflight inspection; and
• Emergency or abnormal procedures.
UA.V.C.K2 Characteristics and potential hazards of lithium batteries (SAFO 09013)
The two types of batteries commonly used to power consumer PEDs brought on aircraft are lithium batteries (disposable) and lithium-ion batteries (rechargeable). Both these types are capable of ignition and subsequent explosion due to overheating. Overheating results in thermal runaway, which can cause the release of either molten burning lithium or a flammable electrolyte. Once one cell in a battery pack goes into thermal runaway, it produces enough heat to cause adjacent cells to go into thermal runaway. The resulting fire can flare repeatedly as each cell ruptures and releases its contents.
UA.V.C.K2a Safe transportation such as proper inspection and handling (SAFO 10017)
Lithium batteries are currently classified as Class 9 materials under the Hazardous Materials Regulations (HMR) (49 CFR 180 185). Nonetheless, most lithium batteries and devices are currently classified as excepted from the Class 9 provisions of the HMR. Because of this exception, they do not require a Notice to the Pilot in Command (NOTOC) to alert the crew of their presence on-board an aircraft.
Testing conducted by the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center (FAA Tech Center) indicates that particular propagation characteristics are associated with lithium batteries. Overheating has the potential to create thermal runaway, a chain reaction leading to self-heating and release of a battery’s stored energy. In a fire situation, the air temperature in a cargo compartment fire may be above the auto-ignition temperature of lithium. For this reason, batteries that are not involved in an initial fire may ignite and propagate, thus creating a risk of a catastrophic event. The existence and magnitude of the risk will depend on such factors as the total number and type of batteries on board an aircraft, the batteries’ proximity to one another, and existing risk mitigation measures in place (including the type of fire suppression system on an aircraft, appropriate packaging and stowage of batteries, and compliance with existing requirements contained within both FAA and PHMSA regulations).
Lithium metal batteries are highly flammable and capable of ignition. Ignition of lithium metal batteries can be caused when a battery short circuits, is overcharged, is heated to extreme temperatures, is mishandled, or is otherwise defective. Once a cell is induced into thermal runaway, either by internal failure or by external means such as heating or physical damage, it generates sufficient heat to cause adjacent cells to go into thermal runaway. The result of thermal runaway in a lithium metal cell is a more severe event as compared to a lithium-ion cell in thermal runaway. The lithium metal cell releases a flammable electrolyte mixed with molten lithium metal, accompanied by a large pressure pulse. The combination of flammable electrolyte and the molten lithium metal can result in an explosive mixture. Halon 1301, the suppression agent found in Class C cargo compartments, is ineffective in controlling a lithium metal cell fire.
UA.V.C.K2b Safe charging (FPV Freedom Coalition)
That brings us to the section on charging a lipo battery. In order to maximize the useful lifespan of your battery you need to know a few things about charging. First of all, never leave charging batteries unattended. When a lipo is charging, the chances of a fire are greatly increased. A healthy undamaged lipo charged properly is unlikely to catch fire, but FPV drones are not exactly kind to batteries and charging a battery that was damaged in a crash or over discharged can be very dangerous.
The safest way to charge a lipo battery and the one that puts the least amount of strain on your battery is to charge at a rate of “1C” or 1 times capacity. A 1C charge rate means that the current will charge the entire battery in 1 hour ( assuming you are starting with a fully discharged battery around 3.2v ). For example, if you had a 1000mAh lipo, to charge at 1C you would set your charger for 1 Amp. If you had a 500mAh battery, you would set your charger to 0.5 Amps. If you have a 1500mAh battery, you would set the charger to 1.5 Amps, and if you have a 3500mAh battery, you would set the charger to 3.5 Amps.
Many batteries will list a maximum charging C-rating on their packaging which will be much higher than 1C, but it is still best to charge slower whenever possible.
UA.V.C.K2c Safe usage
Once a lipo battery is charged, it is best to use it “soon” and then return the battery to storage voltage once done. That is because a battery not at storage voltage is constantly degrading over time and that damage is cumulative. For example a battery left at full charge for a month may have greatly increased internal resistance when used which will cause a decrease in performance and an increase in heat. There is no magic number for how long to leave a lipo fully charged. Leaving it fully charged for 1 day 10 different times is the same as leaving it fully charged for 10 days in a row. Or leaving it fully charged for 1 hour 24 times would be the same as leaving it fully charged for 1 day one time. In general most people find leaving batteries fully charged for a day or so acceptable. So if you find yourself with some fully charged batteries and no plans to use them in the next day or two, it would be best to discharge them down to storage voltage.
Heat and cold are the enemies of lipo batteries. Allowing lipo batteries to get hot either during use or especially during charging will damage them. And on the other side, cold temperatures will decrease the performance of a lipo battery. If you do fly in cold temperatures, keep this in mind. Try to keep your batteries warm, but not hot, before use in cold weather. Once in the air, the use of the batteries will help keep them a little warm, but you will notice that they will not perform quite as well as you are used to. Their voltage will be lower and the sag you feel when pushing them to their limits will be greater. The end result is less power and shorter flight times.
LiPo batteries have a limited lifespan. Eventually, after 300 or so charge cycles, you will find that most LiPo batteries have lost a lot of performance and it will be time to retire them. You will notice that you get less and less flight time and not as much “punch” as you did when the battery was new. Another indicator of a battery being ready for disposal is “puffing”. Worn out or abused batteries will expand or puff up as components inside the battery turn into a gas. Finally, if your battery charger can measure the batteries internal resistance, keep an eye on those numbers. A sudden jump, or having one cell have an internal resistance that is much higher than the others is an indication that the battery should be retired.
However, how long they last and how many cycles you get out of them will greatly depend on how nice you have been to them by not over/under charging them, keeping them at storage voltage, and not letting them get too hot.
UA.V.C.K2d Risks of fires involving lithium batteries (UFine Battery)
LiPo batteries can explode due to various factors compromising their structural integrity and chemical stability. Understanding these causes is crucial for preventing such hazardous incidents:
Overcharging: When LiPo batteries are charged beyond their capacity or at excessive rates, it leads to a phenomenon called “thermal runaway.” This rapid increase in temperature can cause the battery to swell, leak electrolytes, and ultimately explode.
Physical Damage: Any physical trauma, such as punctures, dents, or exposure to high temperatures, can compromise the battery’s internal structure. This damage can create short circuits within the cells, triggering a chain reaction that results in an explosion.
Manufacturing Defects: Inadequate quality control during manufacturing might introduce defects in the battery structure or the materials used. These defects can lead to instability, increasing the likelihood of explosions under certain conditions.
Improper Storage: Storing LiPo batteries in environments with extreme temperatures or high humidity levels can degrade the internal components, potentially leading to malfunction and explosions.
Incorrect Usage: LiPo batteries in applications that exceed their recommended voltage or current limits can stress the cells, causing internal damage and eventual explosions.
Age and Wear: As LiPo batteries age, their internal components degrade. Continual usage and charging cycles can weaken the battery’s structure, making it more susceptible to failure and explosion.
Charging with Unapproved Equipment: Chargers or equipment not designed for LiPo batteries can result in incorrect voltage, current, or charging rates, leading to instability and eventual explosion.
UA.V.C.K3 Loss of aircraft control link and fly-aways (49 CFR 830.5)
The operator of any civil aircraft, or any public aircraft not operated by the Armed Forces or an intelligence agency of the United States, or any foreign aircraft shall immediately, and by the most expeditious means available, notify the nearest National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) office,[1] when:
(a) An aircraft accident or any of the following listed serious incidents occur:
(1) Flight control system malfunction or failure;
(2) Inability of any required flight crewmember to perform normal flight duties as a result of injury or illness;
(3) Failure of any internal turbine engine component that results in the escape of debris other than out the exhaust path;
(4) In-flight fire;
(5) Aircraft collision in flight;
(6) Damage to property, other than the aircraft, estimated to exceed $25,000 for repair (including materials and labor) or fair market value in the event of total loss, whichever is less.
UA.V.C.K4 Loss of Global Positioning System (GPS) signal during flight and potential consequences (AI generated)
- Interference: Radio frequency (RF) sources, such as power lines, buildings, or other wireless devices, can interfere with the GPS signal.
- Obstructions: Trees, hills, or other tall objects can block the drone’s view of the sky and make it difficult to receive a strong signal.
- Incorrect calibration: A compass that’s not calibrated properly can cause GPS signal problems.
- Outdated software: Outdated firmware or apps can cause compatibility issues that lead to GPS signal loss.
- Space weather: Space weather can also cause a weak GPS signal.
- Satellite numbers: The number of satellites available can vary depending on the time of day, which can affect the signa.
To avoid GPS signal loss, you can try flying your drone in a clear, open location away from potential sources of interference. You can also try calibrating your drone’s compass regularly, especially after moving it to a new location.
- Switch to manual mode and take control of the drone.
- Maintain visual contact with the drone to keep it from flying out of range or hitting obstacles.
- Activate the return-to-home function
UA.V.C.K5 Frequency spectrums and associated limitations (AC 107-2A B.6)
Small UAS Frequency Utilization. A small UAS typically uses RFs for the communication link between the CS and the small unmanned aircraft.
B.6.1 Frequency Spectrum (RF) Basics. The 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz systems are the unlicensed band RFs that most small UAS use for the connection between the CS and the small unmanned aircraft. Note the frequencies are also used for computer wireless networks and the interference can cause problems when operating a unmanned aircraft in an area (e.g., dense housing and office buildings) that has many wireless signals. LOC and flyaways are some of the reported problems with small UAS frequency implications.
B.6.1.1 To avoid frequency interference, many modern small UAS operate using a 5.8 GHz system to control the small unmanned aircraft and a 2.4 GHz system to transmit video and photos to the ground. Consult the small UAS operating manual and manufacturer’s recommended procedures before conducting small UAS operations.
B.6.1.2 It should be noted that both RF bands (2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz) are considered line of sight and the command and control link between the CS and the small unmanned aircraft will not work properly when barriers are between the CS and the unmanned aircraft. Part 107 requires the remote PIC or person manipulating the controls to be able to see the unmanned aircraft at all times, which should also help prevent obstructions from interfering with the line of sight frequency spectrum.
B.6.2 Spectrum Authorization. Frequency spectrum used for small unmanned aircraft operations are regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Radio transmissions, such as those used to control an unmanned aircraft and to downlink real-time video, must use frequency bands that are approved for use by the operating agency. The FCC authorizes civil operations. Some operating frequencies are unlicensed and can be used freely (e.g., 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.8 GHz) without FCC approval. All other frequencies require a user-specific license for all civil users, except Federal agencies, to be obtained from the FCC. For further information, visit https://www.fcc.gov/licensing-databases/licensing.
UA.V.C.K6 Procedures for operations over people (AC 107-2A Ch. 8)
8.2 Category of Operations.
Part 107 establishes four categories of permissible operations over people. Category 1 is limited to a maximum weight of 0.55 pounds, including everything that is on board or otherwise attached to the aircraft at the time of takeoff and throughout the duration of each operation. In addition, the small unmanned aircraft must not contain any exposed rotating parts that would lacerate human skin upon impact with a human being. Category 2 or 3 operations may only be conducted with small unmanned aircraft that fulfill performance-based safety requirements, which limit the risk and severity of injuries based on potential hazards. Category 4 allows small unmanned aircraft issued an airworthiness certificate under 14 CFR part 21 to operate over people in accordance with part 107, so long as the operating limitations specified in the FAA-approved Flight Manual, or as otherwise specified by the Administrator, do not prohibit operations over people.
8.3 Operations Over People.
Section 107.39 prohibits operations of a small unmanned aircraft over a person who is not under a safe cover, such as a protective structure or a stationary vehicle, unless the operation is conducted in accordance with one of the four categories listed in part 107 subpart D. A remote pilot may operate a small unmanned aircraft over a person who is directly participating in the operation of the small unmanned aircraft. Direct participants include the remote pilot in command (PIC), another person who may be manipulating the controls, a visual observer (VO), or crewmembers necessary for the safety of the small unmanned aircraft operation. A direct participant should be directly involved in the small unmanned aircraft flight operation. The remote pilot assigns and briefs the direct participants in preparation for the operation. The remote pilot may comply with the requirements prohibiting operation over people in several ways. For example:
• Selecting an operational location where there are no people and none are expected to be present for the duration of the operation. If the remote pilot selects a location where people are present, the remote pilot should have a plan of action to ensure human beings remain clear of the operating area. The remote pilot may be able to direct people to remain indoors or remain under safe cover until the small unmanned aircraft flight operation has ended. Safe cover is a structure or stationary vehicle that protects a person from harm if the small unmanned aircraft impacts that structure or vehicle.
• Maintaining a safe distance from people who are not directly participating in the operation of the small unmanned aircraft.
• Ensuring the small unmanned aircraft will not be operated over any moving vehicles.
Note: The remote pilot should consider risk mitigations, and needs to take into account the small unmanned aircraft’s course, speed, and trajectory, including the possibility of a failure, to determine whether the small unmanned aircraft would go over or strike a person who is not directly participating in the flight operation.
8.3.1 Minimum Distances from a Person.
Part 107 does not impose a specific stand-off distance requirement from people when operating a small unmanned aircraft. The remote pilot may elect to observe a minimum stand-off distance to ensure the safety of the operation. When determining an appropriate stand-off distance, the remote pilot should consider the following factors:
• The small unmanned aircraft’s performance, to include course, speed, trajectory, and maneuverability.
• Environmental conditions such as wind, including gusts, precipitation, and visibility.
• Operational area conditions such as the location and movement of people, vessels, or vehicles, as well as terrain features, including structures or any other item that could affect the operational area where the small unmanned aircraft is being maneuvered.
• Probable failures and the ability to perform emergency maneuvers, including emergency landings.
• The remote pilot’s familiarity with and ability to maneuver the small unmanned aircraft. Note: When conducting the small unmanned aircraft operation, the remote pilot should evaluate and make adjustments to this minimum distance from people as conditions change.
Note: When conducting the small unmanned aircraft operation, the remote pilot should evaluate and make adjustments to this minimum distance from people as conditions change.
8.3.2 Operations Over Open-Air Assemblies of Persons.
Remote pilots are prohibited from operating a small unmanned aircraft as a Category 1, 2, or 4 operation in sustained flight over open-air assemblies, unless the operation meets the requirements of § 89.110 or § 89.115(a). This prohibition is subject to waiver.
8.3.2.1 “Sustained flight” over an open-air assembly of persons in a Category 1, 2, or 4 operation does not include a brief, one-time transiting over a portion of the assembled gathering where the transit is merely incidental to a point-to-point operation unrelated to the assembly.
8.3.2.2 Category 3 operations are not allowed over an open-air assembly of persons.
8.3.3 Operations Over Moving Vehicles.
Part 107 allows small unmanned aircraft operations over people inside moving vehicles with a small unmanned aircraft that meets the eligibility requirements for a Category 1, 2, 3, or 4 operation subject to one of the following conditions:
8.3.3.1 For Categories 1, 2, and 3 small unmanned aircraft, the operation must be conducted within or over a closed- or restricted-access site. Any person located inside a moving vehicle within the closed- or restricted-access site must be on notice that a small unmanned aircraft may fly over them; or
8.3.3.2 If the operation is not conducted within or over a closed- or restricted-access site, the small unmanned aircraft must not maintain sustained flight over any moving vehicle.
Note: Category 4 small unmanned aircraft may be eligible to operate over moving vehicles as long as the operating limitations specified in the FAA-approved Flight Manual, or as otherwise specified by the Administrator, do not prohibit such operation.
8.3.4 Category 1 Operations.
Part 107 establishes a category of operations over people using small unmanned aircraft that weigh 0.55 pounds (250 grams) or less on takeoff and throughout the duration of flight, including everything that is on board or otherwise attached to the aircraft. In addition to weight limits, Category 1 small unmanned aircraft must not contain any exposed rotating parts that would lacerate human skin upon impact. Remote pilots are prohibited from operating as a Category 1 operation in sustained flight over open-air assemblies unless the operation meets the requirements of § 89.110 or § 89.115(a). This prohibition is subject to waiver.
8.3.4.1 The remote pilot is responsible for determining that the small unmanned aircraft does not exceed the weight threshold and must ensure that the small unmanned aircraft does not contain any exposed rotating parts that would lacerate human skin. These requirements are in addition to the already existing pilot requirements of part 107, such as the preflight responsibilities listed in § 107.49 (see paragraph 8.11.1).
8.3.4.2 There are no applicant requirements for Category 1.
8.3.5 Category 2 Operations.
To conduct Category 2 operations over people, the small unmanned aircraft must meet the requirements of § 107.120. To confirm such eligibility, the small unmanned aircraft must be listed on an FAA-accepted declaration of compliance (DOC).
8.3.5.1 It is the remote pilot’s responsibility to ensure that the small unmanned aircraft is listed on an FAA-accepted DOC as eligible for Category 2 operations and labeled as eligible to conduct Category 2 operations. A remote pilot can accomplish these things by checking online at https://uasdoc.faa.gov to see if the DOC is valid and by visually inspecting the aircraft to ensure a label identifying the aircraft as Category 2 is affixed to the aircraft. These requirements are in addition to the already existing pilot requirements of part 107, such as the preflight responsibilities listed in § 107.49.
8.3.5.2 Additionally, the small unmanned aircraft must display a label indicating eligibility to conduct Category 2 operations; have current remote pilot operating instructions that apply to the operation of the small unmanned aircraft, which are described below in paragraph 8.12; and be subject to a product support and notification process. (The applicant must submit the DOC containing specific information to affirm that the aircraft meets the safety requirements through an FAA-accepted means of compliance (MOC). See paragraph 8.9 for a detailed description of the DOC and the process for submitting the DOC.)
8.3.5.3 Remote pilots are prohibited from operating as a Category 2 operation in sustained flight over open-air assemblies unless the operation meets the requirements of § 89.110 or § 89.115(a). This prohibition is subject to waiver.
8.3.6 Category 3 Operations.
To conduct Category 3 operations over people, a small unmanned aircraft must meet the safety requirements of § 107.130. To confirm such eligibility, the small unmanned aircraft must be listed on an FAA-accepted DOC.
8.3.6.1 It is the remote pilot’s responsibility to ensure the small unmanned aircraft is listed on an FAA-accepted DOC and labeled as eligible to conduct Category 3 operations. A remote pilot can accomplish these things by checking online at https://uasdoc.faa.gov to see if the DOC is valid and by visually inspecting the aircraft to ensure a label identifying the aircraft as Category 3 is affixed to the aircraft. These requirements are in addition to the already existing pilot requirements of part 107, such as the preflight responsibilities listed in § 107.49.
8.3.6.2 Additionally, the small unmanned aircraft must display a label identifying eligibility to conduct Category 3 operations; have current remote pilot operating instructions that apply to the operation of the small unmanned aircraft, which are described below in paragraph 8.12; and be subject to a product support and notification process. (The applicant must submit the DOC containing specific information to affirm that the aircraft meets the safety requirements through an FAA-accepted MOC. See paragraph 8.9 for a detailed description of the DOC and the process for submitting the DOC.)
8.3.6.3 Location Requirements and Restrictions. Category 3 operations are allowed under the following conditions:
• The operation is conducted over a closed- or restricted-access site and everyone located within the site must be on notice that a small unmanned aircraft may fly over them.
• The operation is not conducted within a closed- or restricted-access site, and the small unmanned aircraft does not sustain flight over any person unless that person is directly participating in the operation or located under a covered structure or inside a stationary vehicle that can provide reasonable protection from a falling small unmanned aircraft.
8.3.6.4 Additionally, the small unmanned aircraft must display a label identifying eligibility to conduct Category 3 operations; have current remote pilot operating instructions that apply to the operation of the small unmanned aircraft, which are described below in paragraph 8.12; and be subject to a product support and notification process. (The applicant must submit the DOC containing specific information to affirm that the aircraft meets the safety requirements through an FAA-accepted MOC. See paragraph 8.9 for a detailed description of the DOC and the process for submitting the DOC.) Location Requirements and Restrictions. Category 3 operations are allowed under the following conditions: • The operation is conducted over a closed- or restricted-access site and everyone located within the site must be on notice that a small unmanned aircraft may fly over them. • The operation is not conducted within a closed- or restricted-access site, and the small unmanned aircraft does not sustain flight over any person unless that person is directly participating in the operation or located under a covered structure or inside a stationary vehicle that can provide reasonable protection from a falling small unmanned aircraft. No Operations Over Open-Air Assemblies of People. Category 3 operations are not allowed over an open-air assembly of persons. While the FAA does not define open-air assembly by regulation, it employs a case-by-case approach in determining how to apply the term. Open-air assembly has to do with the density of people who are not directly participating in the operation of the small unmanned aircraft and the size of the operational area. An open-air assembly is generally understood as dense gatherings of people in the open, usually associated with concert venues, sporting events, parks, and beaches during certain events. Such assemblies are usually associated with public spaces. The FAA considers that some potential examples of open-air assemblies may include sporting events, concerts, parades, protests, political rallies, community festivals, or parks and beaches during certain events. Some potential examples that are less likely to be considered open-air assemblies include individual persons or families exiting a shopping center, persons participating in casual sports in an open area without spectators, individuals or small groups taking leisure in a park or on a beach, or individuals walking or riding a bike along a bike path. Whether an open-air assembly exists depends on a case-by-case determination based on the facts and circumstances of each case. The remote pilot must assess whether the operational area would be considered an open-air assembly prior to conducting flight operations.
8.3.6.5 Modifications. The remote pilot operating instructions may contain details concerning allowable modifications of the small unmanned aircraft. Modifications not allowed by the remote pilot operating instructions may render the small unmanned aircraft ineligible for operations over people. Such modifications would require submission of a new DOC. Additionally, the small unmanned aircraft may need to be relabeled to reflect the category of operations it is eligible to conduct. In the case of the sale or transfer of the small unmanned aircraft, or use of the aircraft by someone other than the applicant, the applicant must provide remote pilot operating instructions that reflect the aircraft’s eligible category and acceptable modifications. Therefore, the FAA encourages manufacturers of small unmanned aircraft to keep track of modifications that would require an update to the remote pilot operating instructions.
8.3.6.6 Closed- or Restricted-Access Sites. Category 3 operations may take place over or within closed- or restricted-access sites where everyone located within the site must be on notice that a small unmanned aircraft may fly over them, as long as the operational area is not considered an open-air assembly. People who are not directly participating in the operation of the small unmanned aircraft but who are performing functions at the closed- or restricted-access site must be on notice of potential small unmanned aircraft operations, and should be advised of precautions or other recommended actions to take, if necessary. Remote pilots are responsible for ensuring no inadvertent or unauthorized access to the site occur. Adequate assurance could include physical barriers such as barricading and fencing or monitoring personnel to ensure inadvertent or unauthorized access to the site does not occur. Geographical boundaries, such as rivers, canals, cliffs, and heavily wooded areas may serve as effective barriers to restrict access.
8.3.6.7 No Sustained Flight Over People. In addition to closed- or restricted-access sites, Category 3 operations may take place outside of a closed- or restricted-access site as long as the small unmanned aircraft does not sustain flight over people not participating in the operation of the small unmanned aircraft. This allows the remote pilot to operate over people, but only for a brief period. The intent of the requirement is momentary exposure, without sustained exposure over one or more persons. Sustained flight includes hovering above any person’s head, flying back and forth over a person, or circling above an uninvolved person in such a way that the small unmanned aircraft remains above some part of that person. The remote pilot should adjust the flightpath of the small unmanned aircraft to ensure minimal exposure of the aircraft over people, and may need to discontinue the operation if the flightpaths would require sustained flight over people.
8.3.7 Category 4 Operations.
Certification is how the FAA manages risk through safety assurance. It provides the FAA confidence that a proposed product or operation will meet FAA safety expectations to protect the public. Eligible Category 4 small unmanned aircraft must have an airworthiness certificate issued by the FAA under part 21 and must be operated in accordance with the operating limitations specified in the FAA-approved Flight Manual or as otherwise specified by the Administrator. The airworthiness certificate allows small unmanned aircraft operations for compensation and hire.
8.3.7.1 The remote pilot conducting Category 4 operations over people must use an eligible small unmanned aircraft. To operate over people in accordance with § 107.140 and over moving vehicles in accordance with § 107.145(c), the remote pilot must operate the small unmanned aircraft in accordance with all operating limitations that apply to the small unmanned aircraft, as specified by the Administrator. These operating limitations must not prohibit operations over people.
8.3.7.2 Remote pilots are prohibited from operating as a Category 4 operation in sustained flight over open-air assemblies unless the operation meets the requirements of § 89.110 or § 89.115(a). This prohibition is subject to waiver.
8.3.7.3 Category 4 Maintenance. In order to preserve the continued airworthiness of the small unmanned aircraft and continue to meet a level of reliability that the FAA finds acceptable for flying over people in accordance with Category 4, the requirements of § 107.140(c) apply. Eligible Category 4 small unmanned aircraft must have maintenance, preventive maintenance, or alterations performed in a manner using the methods, techniques, and practices prescribed in the manufacturer’s current maintenance manual or instructions for continued airworthiness (ICA) prepared by its manufacturer, or other methods, techniques, and practices acceptable to the Administrator. Additionally, Category 4 small unmanned aircraft must be inspected in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions or other instructions acceptable to the Administrator and have maintenance, preventive maintenance, or alterations performed using parts of such a quality that the condition of the aircraft will be at least equal to its original or properly altered condition.
UA.V.C.K7 Procedures for operations at night (AC 107-2A 5.7)
5.7 Civil Twilight and Operations at Night.
Night is defined in 14 CFR § 1.1 as the time between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight, as published in The Air Almanac, converted to local time. In the continental United States, evening civil twilight is the period of sunset until 30 minutes after sunset and morning civil twilight is the period of 30 minutes prior to sunrise until sunrise. In Alaska, the definition of civil twilight differs and is described in The Air Almanac. The Air Almanac provides tables to determine sunrise and sunset at various latitudes. These tables can also be downloaded from the Naval Observatory and customized for a particular location. The link for the Naval Observatory is https://www.usno.navy.mil/search?SearchableText=air+ almanac+.
5.7.1 Civil Twilight Operations.
When small UAS operations occur during civil twilight, the small unmanned aircraft must be equipped with anti-collision lighting visible for at least 3 statute miles (sm). However, the remote PIC may reduce the visible distance of the lighting to less than 3 sm during flight if he or she has determined that it would be in the interest of safety to do so. For more information on this determination, see paragraph 5.7.2.2.
5.7.2 Operations at Night.
Small UAS operations at night may occur only under the two risk mitigation measures listed in § 107.29. First, the remote PIC must have completed either an initial knowledge test or recurrent training that have been updated to include night operations. Second, the small unmanned aircraft must have lighted anti-collision lighting that is visible for at least 3 sm. The remote pilot may rely upon manufacturer statements indicating the anti-collision lighting is visible for 3 sm. However, the remote pilot ultimately remains responsible for verifying that anti-collision lighting is operational, visible for 3 sm, and has a flash rate sufficient to avoid a collision at the operating location.
5.7.2.1 A certificated remote pilot receives night operations privileges and may operate at night only after completing either a knowledge test that contains questions on night physiology and night visual illusions, or through completion of recurrent training. The recurrent training contains the topics of night physiology and night visual illusions. Chapter 6 provides a detailed explanation of both paths for night operations privileges.
5.7.2.2 As is the case for civil twilight operations, the small unmanned aircraft must be equipped with anti-collision lighting that is visible for at least 3 sm. However, the remote PIC may reduce the intensity of the light if the remote PIC determines it is in the interest of safety to do so. For example, a bright light or a bright strobe light on the small unmanned aircraft in very close proximity to the remote pilot could cause the remote pilot to lose the ability to observe the small unmanned aircraft’s location, speed, attitude, or altitude with accuracy. The remote pilot maintains the discretion to reduce the intensity of the anti-collision lighting when he or she determines it would be in the best interest of safety to do so. Discretion is an important component of § 107.19, which states that the remote PIC is directly responsible for the operation of the small unmanned aircraft. The remote PIC must ensure the operation of the small unmanned aircraft complies with all regulations of part 107. This includes the requirement to maintain the capability of visually observing the small unmanned aircraft. Section 107.29 does not require small unmanned aircraft operating during the day to have illuminated small unmanned aircraft anti-collision lighting. Lighting is generally not effective for mitigating risk of collision during daytime operations. Remote pilots may exercise their discretion, however, and elect to have lighting on during all daytime operations.
5.7.2.3 A remote PIC or operator may request a waiver of the anti-collision lighting requirement for operations at night and during civil twilight. The process for requesting a waiver is two-fold: the requester must (1) fully describe the proposed operation, and (2) establish the operation can be safely conducted under the terms of a Certificate of Waiver (CoW).