Chapter 9 – Minerals

9.1 Introduction to the Minerals

The traditional Hawaiian saying, "He puko`a kani `aina"

Means, "A coral reef strengthens into land."

Choy sum
Figure 9.1.  "Choy Sum" by pxhere.com, Public Domain.

Like vitamins, minerals are essential to human health and can be obtained from our diet. Minerals are abundant in our everyday lives. From the soil in your front yard to the jewelry you wear, we interact with minerals constantly. There are 20 essential minerals that must be consumed in our diets to maintain good health.  The amount of each mineral found in our bodies varies greatly, and therefore, so does the consumption of those minerals. When an essential mineral is deficient, health problems may arise.

Major minerals are classified as those required in the diet each day in amounts greater than 100 milligrams. These include sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur. These major minerals can be found in a variety of foods. For example, in Guam, the major dietary source of calcium is not only dairy, a common source, but also mixed dishes, desserts, and vegetables. Consuming a varied diet significantly improves an individual's ability to meet their nutrient needs.  [1]

The major minerals are sodium potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfer. The trace minerals are iron, copper, zinc, selenium, iodine, chromium, fluoride, manganese, and molybdenum.
Figure 9.2.  The Major Minerals (Image by Allison Calabrese licensed CC BY 4.0.)

Trace minerals are classified as minerals required in the diet in smaller amounts, specifically 100 milligrams or less, each day.  These include copper, zinc, selenium, iodine, chromium, fluoride, manganese, molybdenum, and others.  Although trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts, it is important to remember that a deficiency in a trace mineral can be just as detrimental to your health as a major mineral deficiency. Iodine deficiency is a significant concern worldwide, including in Fiji.  In the 1990s, almost 50% of the population had signs of iodine deficiency, also known as goiter. To combat this national issue, the government of Fiji banned non-iodized salt and allowed only fortified iodized salt into the country, in hopes of increasing iodine intake in people's diets.  With this law and health promotion efforts encouraging the consumption of seafood, great progress has been made in reducing iodine deficiency in Fiji.[2]

Bioavailability of Minerals Varies

Minerals are not as efficiently absorbed as most vitamins, and so the bioavailability of minerals can be very low. Plant-based foods often contain factors, such as oxalate and phytate, that bind to minerals and inhibit their absorption. In general, minerals are better absorbed from animal-based foods. In most cases, increasing dietary intake of a particular mineral decreases its absorption. Some minerals influence the absorption of others. For instance, excess dietary zinc can impair iron and copper absorption.

Conversely, certain vitamins enhance mineral absorption. For example, vitamin C enhances iron absorption, and vitamin D facilitates the absorption of calcium and magnesium. As is the case with vitamins, certain gastrointestinal disorders and diseases, such as Crohn’s disease and kidney disease, as well as the aging process, impair mineral absorption, putting people with malabsorption conditions and the elderly at higher risk for mineral deficiencies

DID YOU KNOW:   🍎🥦Not all fruits, vegetables, and dairy products contribute the same minerals—even when they look similar on your plate.

For example, milk and yogurt are rich in calcium and phosphorus, but cheese, derived from milk, has less. In contrast, bananas, potatoes, and spinach are standout sources of potassium, mineral plants use to regulate water balance—much like potassium helps regulate fluid balance in the human body. To sort the foods by mineral content, click the arrow in the header.

Food Calcium mg Phosphorus mg Potassium mg Magnesium mg Sodium mg
Milk, skim 1 c. 299 226 382 21 82
Soy milk, plain 1 c 299 69 187 61 84
Greek yogurt, 1 c 250 274 352 25 77
Cheese, cheddar 1 oz 149 97 16 6 135
Potato, baked 26 123 610 43 20
Banana, med. 6 26 422 31 1
Salmon, canned 3 oz 212 301 255 26 332
Chicken breast, 3 oz 21 182 332 22 50
Egg, boiled 25 86 63 57 62
Spinach, cooked 1/2 c 123 41 334 78 63
Beef, 3 oz 10 172 315 20 50
Apple, raw 12 19 186 9 2
Chia seeds, 1 oz 179 244 115 95 4
Almonds, 1 oz. 76 136 208 76 0.3

Chapter 9 Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

  1. Differentiate between major minerals, trace minerals, and electrolytes, and explain how mineral classification relates to physiological need and dietary intake.

  2. Describe the general functions of minerals in the human body, including their roles in bone health, fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction, enzyme activity, and energy metabolism.

  3. Explain the physiological roles of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium, with emphasis on skeletal health, metabolic regulation, and interactions among these minerals.

  4. Identify dietary sources and factors affecting the absorption and bioavailability of major minerals, including the influence of vitamin D, phytates, oxalates, and protein intake.

  5. Describe the role of water in maintaining homeostasis, including regulation of body temperature, transport of nutrients and waste, and maintenance of blood volume.

  6. Explain the functions of key electrolytes (sodium, chloride, and potassium) and describe how electrolyte balance is maintained in healthy individuals.

  7. Discuss the physiological roles of iron, zinc, copper, chromium, selenium, and fluoride, including their involvement in oxygen transport, immune function, antioxidant defense, glucose metabolism, and dental health.

  8. Compare the deficiency and toxicity risks associated with selected trace minerals, and identify populations at increased risk due to life stage, dietary patterns, or health status.

  9. Describe the absorption, regulation, and recycling of iron, and explain why iron deficiency remains one of the most common nutrient deficiencies worldwide.

  10. Identify major sources and health effects of toxic heavy metals, including mercury, lead, and arsenic, and explain how these substances interfere with normal mineral metabolism.

  11. Explain environmental and occupational pathways of heavy metal exposure, with emphasis on mining and coal-producing regions such as West Virginia and East Tennessee.

  12. Discuss public health strategies used to reduce mineral deficiencies and toxic exposures, including food fortification, water treatment, dietary guidance, and environmental regulation.

  13. Apply mineral and water intake recommendations to real-world scenarios, including dietary assessment, community health concerns, and environmental risk contexts.

Attributions

This section is an adaptation of "Introduction" in Human Nutrition: 2020 Edition by University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

  1. Pobocik RS, Trager A, Monson LM. Dietary Patterns and Food Choices of a Population Sample of Adults on Guam. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2008; 17(1), 94-100. http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/APJCN/17/1/94.pdf. Accessed November 11, 2025.   ↵
  2. Micronutrient Deficiencies. Ministry of Health and Medical Services, Shaping Fiji’s Health. http://www.health.gov.fj/?page_id=1406. Published 2015. Accessed November 12, 2025. ↵
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Introduction to Nutrition and Wellness, 2nd Edition Copyright © 2026 by Janet Colson and Sarah Harris is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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